About this paper symposium

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Panel information
Panel 7. Diversity, Equity & Social Justice

Paper #1
Children integrate verbal and non-verbal cues to infer differential expectations of groups
Author information	Role
Kaila Scott-Charles, University of Chicago, United States	Presenting author
Isobel A. Heck, University of Rochester, United States of America	Non-presenting author
Katherine D. Kinzler, University of Chicago, United States of America	Non-presenting author
Abstract
Children develop social group-based attitudes from a young age, including beliefs about groups' relative abilities, behaviors, and positions in hierarchies (Heck et al., 2022). Research shows children absorb these attitudes through both verbal statements (e.g., Lane et al., 2020) and nonverbal cues, such as body language and facial expressions during intergroup interactions (e.g., Castelli et al., 2008). In this study, we examined whether children recognize and respond to an agent's unfair treatment of one group by integrating verbal and nonverbal cues. Specifically, we tested whether children use body positioning and gestures to track patterns of positive versus negative expectations toward different groups, in a classroom setting where children might observe biased treatment by educators (Inan-Kaya & Rubie-Davies, 2022). We predicted that children would attend to both verbal and nonverbal cues to recognize unfair treatment and form group-based expectations about individuals’ behavior and success. Children ages 5 to 8 (N = 96) watched an animated video of a teacher instructing two novel groups about a new activity. The teacher conveyed positive and negative expectations of behavior and success. Though not explicitly directed at any group, the teacher consistently faced and gestured toward one group when expressing positive expectations and toward the other for negative ones. Afterward, children saw pairs of individual students from each group and made predictions about behavior and success. They also evaluated the teacher's fairness, perceived group preference, and their own attitudes toward the groups. On average, children more frequently predicted that members of the group toward which the teacher directed positive expectations were better behaved and more successful. This suggests children recognize the pattern of unfair treatment and internalize it in their predictions. Children who made these predictions were also more likely to perceive the teacher as favoring the positively treated group. Despite this, most children rated the teacher as fair. However, perceptions shifted with age—older children viewed the teacher as less fair than younger children, and the more they recognized the unfair treatment, the less fair they perceived the teacher to be. These results suggest that children recognize inequitable expectations directed at different groups and apply these expectations to group members, even when they are not explicitly targeted. Younger children may see this bias as more acceptable, while older children are more likely to view it as unfair. Data collection for a replication and extension of the study is ongoing (N = 44/96) and is expected to be completed by the conference. This follow-up study uses a more refined method to assess children’s predictions of group members’ future behavior and success. We are also testing whether children’s observations of verbal and nonverbal cues inform their judgments of groups’ status and how perceptions of fairness play a role. This work will deepen our understanding of how children recognize and respond to social inequalities, highlighting the subtle ways they detect and use unfair treatment to form group-based attitudes and status predictions. Such processes may contribute to the perpetuation or rectification of social inequities from an early age.

Paper #2
Children's reasoning about and responses to inequalities that persist after removing historical structural barriers
Author information	Role
Jamie Amemiya, Occidental College, United States	Presenting author
Ethan Sitzes, University of Chicago, United States	Non-presenting author
Vanessa Lazaro, University of Chicago, United States	Non-presenting author
Lin Bian, University of Chicago, United States	Non-presenting author
Abstract
Many present-day inequalities have roots in historically unfair societal structures. For example, current racial economic inequalities can be traced back to historical redlining practices that are no longer present (at least, not in their historical form). How do children reason about and respond to inequalities that persist after historical barriers are formally removed? The present research examined the hypothesis that children may default to intrinsic explanations and reinforce the inequality. However, we hypothesized that providing information about intergenerational disadvantage—linking historical structures to present-day inequalities—may mitigate these effects. Children were recruited from a university database and a local museum. Participants in Experiment 1 were 194 children ages 6 to 9 years old (96 boys, 97 girls, 1 non-binary; 94 White, 35 Asian, 19 Mixed, 10 Latine/x, 5 Black, 1 Native American). Participants in Experiment 2 (ongoing; planned N = 192) were 28 children ages 6 to 9 years old (15 boys, 13 girls; 16 White, 7 Asian, 3 Black, 1 Latine/x, 1 Mixed). In Experiment 1, participants were introduced to two groups, Reds and Blues, who live in segregated neighborhoods with distinct cultural practices (Reds eat berries, Blues eat apples). We had three conditions: (1) No Historical Information: No historical information was provided; (2) Historical Barrier Still Exists: Participants learned that long ago, Reds made the Koba Rule that segregated the groups and forced Blues to eat apples and that this rule was still in place, and (3) Historical Barrier - Long-Time Removed: Participants learned about the Koba Rule, but also learned that it had been removed for a long time. Across conditions, participants explained present-day group differences and allocated fruits (apples vs. berries) to each group. We found significant condition differences for the explanations measure, χ2(6) = 25.14, p < .001. As shown in Figure 1A, children generated the most intrinsic explanations (e.g., appealing to groups’ inherent preferences) in the No Historical Information condition, but also substantially more in the Long Time Removed condition versus the Still in Place condition. Although allocation decisions did not vary by condition, children who generated Structural explanations were the least likely to perpetuate current group differences in their fruit allocations, B = -0.74, p < .05. Experiment 2 included (1) the Long Time Removed condition and compared it to two new conditions that linked the historical Koba Rule to present-day group differences: (2) Preference condition—exposure to only apples during the Koba Rule led to Blues liking apples; and (3) Intergenerational condition—Reds acquired more berry bushes during the Koba Rule, which is why they eat more berries today. We examined children’s moral judgments of allocations that rectified or perpetuated group differences. Compared to the baseline Long Time Removed condition, children in the Intergenerational condition, but not the Preference condition, were more likely to rectify group differences (Figure 2A) and not perpetuate them (Figure 2B). Overall, our results indicate that children may have difficulty thinking structurally about inequalities with historical roots and require additional information to link history to the present day.

Paper #3
Children’s and Adolescents’ Perceptions of Subjective Socioeconomic Status in Türkiye
Author information	Role
Buse Gönül, Eskisehir Osmangazi University, Turkey	Presenting author
Basak Sahin-Acar, Middle East Technical University, Turkey	Non-presenting author
Abstract
Understanding how children and adolescents experience and internalize socioeconomic conditions, inequalities, and social hierarchies is essential for addressing broader societal concerns related to equity and justice. Exploring the impact of objective socioeconomic status (SES) and how children perceive their position within social hierarchies (subjective social status, SSS) provides a comprehensive understanding of their experiences and challenges. Children's SSS also influences their understanding of social hierarchies, group memberships, and interactions with peers from different backgrounds. This study explores how children and adolescents in Türkiye define their SSS in a context marked by significant economic fluctuations and increasing inequality in recent years. Our study aims to capture children's and adolescents' experiences within this economic landscape, providing insights into how economic instability affects their SSS, social mobility, and perceptions of inequality. The study included 182 children from areas surrounding the capital of Türkiye. The sample consisted of children (8-11-year-olds, N = 81, Mage = 10.11, SD = .73) and adolescents (12-17-year-olds, N = 91, Mage = 15.55, SD = 1.01) from lower (N = 103) and higher (N = 79) socioeconomic backgrounds. Participants reported their SSS using a single-item question adapted from the MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status (1-10 Likert scale). They were then asked to provide open-ended explanations for why they believed their families occupied that position. Their responses were coded based on previous literature and the content of their answers. Parents also provided detailed demographic information regarding their families' social and economic conditions. Quantitative analyses examined developmental trends in participants' SSS perceptions and differences between socioeconomic groups, while qualitative analyses focused on participants' explanations of their subjective social status. The results showed that participants' SSS ratings were significantly correlated with parent-reported household education, family income, and parent SSS. Adolescents' SSS ratings were significantly lower (M = 5.78) than those of children (M = 6.50). A similar pattern was observed between participants from lower (M = 5.33) and higher (M = 6.96) SES. Participants' open-ended responses reflected a diverse range of issues, including varying degrees of access to resources (constraints on opportunities, access to sufficient resources, privileged conditions) and status indicators (family occupations, cultural capital). As novel findings, participants frequently mentioned precarious living conditions while describing their families' SSS and financial strategies, such as budgeting and prioritizing needs over wants. They also highlighted family values and merits in defining their socioeconomic position. These various content were often mentioned together, indicating children's ability to integrate multiple sources of information. These findings suggest that children and adolescents are highly aware of the socioeconomic conditions surrounding them and actively interpret their family's status within the broader social hierarchy. The emergence of novel themes, such as precarious living conditions and financial strategies, indicates that young people recognize material resources and internalize their families' coping strategies. This social awareness points to the potential long-term impact of economic instability on their social identity, aspirations, and perceptions of inequality.

Paper #4
Children’s and Adolescents’ Expectations of Peer Confrontations of Gender Bias in Science Contexts
Author information	Role
Marley B. Forbes, University of Maryland, College Park, United States	Presenting author
Melanie Killen, University of Maryland, College Park, United States	Non-presenting author
Abstract
Stereotypic beliefs about gender and science develop in childhood and influence peer group norms (McGuire et al., 2022; Mulvey et al., 2022). Biased beliefs and norms can lead to exclusionary behaviors, which can negatively impact girls’ belonging and motivation in science (Master, 2021). Yet, children can help change group norms by challenging them (Killen & Dahl, 2021). One way to challenge biased norms is to directly confront a group for their actions. No known research has investigated children’s expectations of peers confronting gender bias in science contexts. In this study, we examined children’s and adolescents’ evaluations of gender bias in a science peer group context and their predictions about peers’ likelihood of confronting bias. Guided by our theoretical model, we expected that adolescents, but not children, would evaluate bias that disadvantaged girls more negatively than bias that disadvantaged boys. We also expected that adolescents, but not children, would expect advantaged peers to be less likely to confront a group’s bias than disadvantaged peers. We interviewed U.S. children ages 8-14 (N = 110, Mage = 10.81, 65% female, 31.8% White, 17.3% Multiracial, 13.6% Black, 10% Latine, 7.3% Asian, 9.1% other ethnic-racial background, 10.9% not reported) and presented them with a vignette where a group of kids who compete at science competitions always chose peers of one gender group (girls, boys) for leadership positions. Participants were introduced to two peers in the group who disagreed with their group’s biased choices. All participants were introduced to a disadvantaged peer (i.e., the gender never chosen as leader) and advantaged peer (i.e., the gender always chosen as leader). Participants were asked to: (1) evaluate the group’s choices of leaders and (2) predict the likelihood of the peers confronting the group about their choices for leader. The data were analyzed with ANOVAs, with repeated measures used to assess predictions. We found that adolescents evaluated bias that disadvantaged girls more negatively than bias that disadvantaged boys (p = .002). Children, however, did not significantly differ in their evaluations of bias that disadvantaged girls and boys. We also found that adolescents expected advantaged peers to be less likely to confront the group than disadvantaged peers (p < .001). Children did not significantly differ in their expectations of advantaged and disadvantaged peers’ likelihood of confronting the group. These results revealed age-related changes in children’s abilities to factor status and group membership into their own evaluations of and expectations of peers confronting gender bias in a science peer group context. While previous research has shown that, with age, individuals account for a group’s broader societal status when evaluating bias within a specific scenario, this study demonstrates this finding in the novel context of gender bias in science. This study also contributes novel insights into how adolescents’ advanced understanding of status and group processes shapes their expectations of peers’ challenges to unfair treatment. These findings have implications for understanding children’s and adolescents’ abilities to make science spaces more equitable and inclusive by challenging unfair treatment within peer groups.

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