About this paper symposium

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Panel information
Panel 14. Parenting & Parent-Child Relationships

Paper #1
Fathers in Family Structure Transitions, Father-Child Relationship, and Youth Behavior Outcomes in Low-Income Families
Author information	Role
Yeqing Li, School of Human Ecology, University of Wisconsin–Madison, United States	Presenting author
Alvin Thomas, University of Wisconsin–Madison, United States	Non-presenting author
Abstract
Family structures in the US have become increasingly diverse in the past decades. With the decline of marriage, more children live in cohabitating families, single-parent households, and stepfamilies (US Census Bureau, 2023). Nuclear families are no longer the default family union (Carr & Utz, 2020); however, they are believed to be the optimal familial context for child development (Carlson & England, 2011). Research also supported evidence for the developmental discrepancy between children from nuclear families and other families. Family structure transitions have attracted growing concerns in recent years. It refers to the process by which children transit from one family structure into another (e.g., transit from a nuclear family to a single-mother family after the parents’ divorce), reflecting the stability and complexity of the family union over time (Osborne et al., 2012). Based on previous research (Bzostek & Berger, 2017; Osborne et al., 2012), we conceptualized family structure transitions by three domains, namely number, direction, and timing. The number of transitions is the amount of transitions a child has experienced. The direction of the transitions indicates the origin (i.e., family structure before a transition) and destination (i.e., family structure after a transition) of a transition. The timing of transitions captures the age of children when a transition occurs. Recent research has preliminarily examined the relations between family structure transitions and child development. For instance, Fomby & Osborne (2017) found that children born to unmarried mothers who experienced more family structure transitions had higher levels of behavior problems at 9. Moreover, fathers play a profound role in the associations between family structure transitions and child development. First, children are more likely to live in a single-mother household if their parents are unmarried, separated, or divorced (US Census Bureau, 2023). They might witness fathers, including biological fathers and mothers’ new partners, stepping out or into the family. Second, the father’s residence with the child is closely related to fathering and, thus, impacts child development. As shown in Mitchell et al.’s (2015) study, stopping living with a biological father and starting living with a stepfather were both associated with increased antisocial behavior in early childhood and worse health and well-being in adulthood. Therefore, the present study will explore the associations between father-related family structure transitions and youth behavior outcomes and the mediating roles of the father-child relationship. Data come from the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study, a longitudinal birth cohort study tracking 4,898 children born between 1998 and 2000 in 20 U.S. cities. A large proportion of children came from low-income families. We will first code family structures at birth and age 1, 3, 5, 9, and 15 and their transitions across the six waves. The analytic strategies include descriptive statistics of family structure transitions and structural equation modeling of associations among family structure transitions, father-child relationships, and youth behavior problems. The analysis will be completed by 2024, and results will be discussed regarding supporting families susceptible to risks regarding father-child relationships and risks of youth development in family structure transitions.

Paper #2
Intergenerational Pathways: Exploring African American Father-Child Relationships, Fatherhood Identity, and Private and Public Regard
Author information	Role
Victoria H. Cooper-Roundy, University of Arizona, United States	Presenting author
Stephen M. Gibson, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, United States	Non-presenting author
Shauna Cooper, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, United States	Non-presenting author
Priscilla Zambrano, University of Arizona, United States	Non-presenting author
Abstract
Investigating relationships between Black fathers and their own fathers in childhood and adulthood offers insights into how intergenerational bonds influence fathers’ closeness with their own children and their fathering identity. Men often model parenting behaviors from their own fathers (Cooper et al., 2019), but we know little about the direct ways personal experiences with their fathers impact fathers’ sense of identity and how others perceive their Black father identity. In the context of Black fatherhood, general and racialized fathering identity jointly reinforce beliefs and behaviors about fatherhood (Cooper et al., 2015). Although Black fathers have been included in the broader discourse on fathering, few studies have investigated the evolution of father-child relationships and how these dynamics impact fathering and identity. This study examines how Black father’s past and present relationships with their fathers predict closeness to their own children, fathering identity, and private and public regard. Data were from the Representations of Fatherhood: Roles, Awareness, and MEaning (REFRAME) study. Participants were 587 Black fathers (M= 40.16 years; SD= 22.16) with children between 8 and 17 years of age (M= 12.36; SD= 2.92). Fathers’ closeness to their father/father-figure was measured using one item (Growing up, how would you rate your relationship with your father/father-figure)? Fathers’ closeness to their father currently was measured using one item (How would you rate your relationship with your father currently)? Fathers’ closeness to their children was also measured using one item (How close do you feel toward your child)? The fathering identity included five items that captured fathers' general ideas about fathering (e.g., Any man can father a child, but it takes a special person to be a good dad, α= .80). Black father's private and public regard included scale items that were adapted from the MIBI (Sellers et al., 1997). Specifically, Black father public regard measured how others viewed Black fathers (e.g., Overall, Black fathers are considered good fathers by others, α= .79), and Black father private regard measured how Black fathers personally felt about Black fathers (e.g., I am proud to be a Black father, α= .77). We conducted a measured variable path analysis. The overall model fit indices (chi-square, CFI, TLI, RMSEA, SRMR) were above the recommended parameters, indicating good fit of the overall model. Close father relationships in childhood were positively associated with current closeness with their fathers (β= 0.54, p < .001) only. Fathers who reported more current closeness to their fathers reported higher closeness with their own child (β= 0.08, p = .005) and Black fathers’ public regard (β= 0.04, p = .003). Fathers with a more positive relationship with their fathers currently had an increase in Black fathers’ public regard (β= 0.04, p = .003). Closeness to their child positively predicted fathering identity (β= 0.18, p < .001), Black fathers’ private regard (β= 0.21, p < .001), and public regard (β= 0.09, p = .004). These findings suggest the need to explore father-child relationships over time and the intergenerational factors that contribute to Black fathering identity.

Paper #3
African American Fathers' Parenting Ideologies, Racialized Experiences, and Racial Socialization Messages
Author information	Role
Deon Brown, University of Houston, United States	Presenting author
Alvin Thomas, University of Wisconsin–Madison, United States	Non-presenting author
Stephen M. Gibson, University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, United States	Non-presenting author
Shauna Cooper, University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, United States	Non-presenting author
Abstract
African American parents are consistently engaged in socialization processes that teach their children how to be human and navigate their racialized identities in the context of America (Dunbar et al., 2017), including ethnic-racial socialization (ERS) practices. ERS collectively is the messages that parents transmit to their children about race to inform their experience as Black children in America. While African American parents often embrace the responsibility of equipping their children with the tools to navigate a racialized society, the burden can become heavy when their children start interfacing with environments that may be emotionally inhibiting (Lozada et al., 2022). Fathers are a critical resource for youth navigating public contexts, particularly with regard racialized identity and experiences. The process of ERS is well-studied among African American families broadly. However, less is known about the nature of African American fathers’ engagement in ERS. The current study assessed several predictors of African American fathers’ ERS practices to understand how they approach family processes and influence child development. We expected strong associations to emerge between African American fathers’ racial discrimination experiences and Black father stereotype awareness and ERS practices, whereas associations would be weaker between both paternal self-efficacy and father ideology and ERS practices. Data was originally collected using self-report measures in the Representations of Fatherhood: Roles, Awareness, and Meaning (ReFRAMe) study. Participants included 587 African American/Black fathers. Preliminary analyses were conducted using SPSS 28. We assessed bivariate correlations between demographic variables (i.e., education, gender, marital status) and main analytic variables (i.e., father ideology, paternal self-efficacy, racial discrimination, Black father stereotype awareness, ERS practices). We regressed the main predictor variables on the dependent variable (i.e., ERS processes) in a stepwise manner. There were no significant correlations between demographic variables and main analytic variables, but all main analytic variables were positively associated. Stepwise regression results revealed that all predictor variables were significantly related to ERS practices except for fathering ideology. Paternal self-efficacy alone explained 6.1% of the variance in ERS practices, F (1,584) = 38.04, p < .001. More specifically, African American fathers’ paternal self-efficacy was significantly related to their ERS practices (β = .25, p < .001). Paternal self-efficacy and Black father stereotype awareness together explained 9.9% of variance in fathers’ ERS practices, F (2,583) = 31.86, p < .001. Paternal self-efficacy remained significantly related to ERS practices (β = .24, p < .001) and Black father stereotype awareness emerged as positively associated with ERS practices (β = .19, p < .001). Lastly, African American fathers’ paternal self-efficacy, Black father stereotype awareness, and racial discrimination collectively explained 11.1% of the variance in their ERS practices, F (3,582) = 24.14, p < .001. Paternal self-efficacy, Black father stereotype awareness, and racial discrimination experiences were all positively related to ERS practices (β = .24, p < .001; β = .16, p < .001; β = .12, p = .005, respectively). Taken together, results suggest that African American fathers’ self-efficacy, stereotype awareness, and racial discrimination experiences are important considerations in their decision to engage in ERS processes.

Paper #4
Exploring School Involvement Profiles of Black Fathers: A Person-Centered Approach
Author information	Role
Dr. Stephen Gibson, University of North Carolina At Chapel Hill, United States	Presenting author
Jerica Knox, University of Maryland School of Medicine University of Maryland School of Medicine, United States	Non-presenting author
Shauna Cooper, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, United States	Non-presenting author
Abstract
Researchers have categorized parent involvement in children’s educational activities into two broad categories: home-based parent involvement and school-based involvement (Deplanty et al., 2007). While much of the literature exploring parental educational engagement has primarily focused on maternal contribution, with ‘parental’ and ‘maternal’ often used interchangeably, the contributions of Black fathers on the academic outcomes of Black youth are often overlooked and understudied. Furthermore, empirical studies have primarily focused on white middle-class samples of fathers, with Black fathers either being completely absent from the sample or making up a small portion of the sample (Reynolds et al., 2015). However, growing empirical evidence suggests that Black fathers are engaged in supporting their children’s education by setting high academic expectations (Allen, 2013; Reynolds, 2015). Recent studies have highlighted that Black fathers’ school involvement is most commonly home-based (Grantham & Henfield, 2011; Lareau, 2000), including assistance with homework, providing words of encouragement and advice, showing interest in extracurricular activities, and setting high expectations for academics (Grief et al., 1998; Lareau, 2003). Additionally, studies have found that Black fathers are engaging with school personnel (Alston, 2020). To date, no known studies have identified school involvement patterns among Black fathers, which can help fill the gap in understanding their unique contributions to their children's education. The current investigation utilizes a person-centered methodological approach to identify distinct profiles of home- and school-based involvement among Black fathers. The sample used in this study comes from the Representations of Fatherhood: Roles, Awareness, and Meaning (ReFRAMe) study, which is based on a national sample of 451 Black fathers (M = 41.22; SD = 26.54) with children between the ages of 8 and 17 years of age (M = 12.13; SD = 2.94) participated in this investigation. Participants completed measures of school involvement (adapted from Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2005). The following items were used as indicators: (1) Father-Teacher Contact, (2) attending a school event, (3) attending a student-teacher conference, (4) participation in Parent-Teacher Association (PTA) or Parent-Teacher Organization (PTO), (5) Volunteering in the classroom or school. Latent profile analyses using MplusAutomation via R studio identified four distinct school involvement profiles among Black fathers (Figure 1): (1) Low School Service (n = 124), (2) Diversified School Service, Low Teacher Contact (n = 98), (3) Diversified School Service, High Teacher Contact (n = 111), and (4) High School Engagement (n = 117). The anticipated findings and implications of these distinct school involvement profiles will be discussed.

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