About this paper symposium

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Panel information
Panel 6. Developmental Psychopathology

Paper #1
The Moderating Role of Parenting in the Relation Between Parent Psychopathology and Child Outcomes
Author information	Role
Rylee Abaya, Loyola University Chicago	Presenting author
Violeta J. Rodriguez, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, United States	Non-presenting author
Sungha Kang, Loyola University Chicago, United States	Non-presenting author
Abstract
Background: When parents experience mental health problems, most commonly depression and anxiety, their struggles often extend beyond themselves, shaping their children’s development. Although ample research has documented the link between parental mental health and child outcomes, less is known about factors that influence the strength of this association. . Parenting practices may be one of those behavioral predictors that play a protective or risk factor for children whose parents are anxious or depressed. The present study explores how parenting practices may moderate the relationship between parent and child psychopathology. Method: Participants included 1,699 parents with at least one child 3-17 years old. On average, parents were 37.91 years old (SD=9.20). Most reported being married (n=1,001) with similar counts of mothers (n=823) and fathers (n=876). Participants were recruited online to represent an even proportion of non-Hispanic White (n=669), non-Hispanic Black (n=470), non-Hispanic Asian (n=376), and Hispanic (n=435) parents. Participants’ positive and negative parenting were measured by the revised Multidimensional Assessment of Parenting Scale (Rodriguez et al., 2024). Parental depressive symptoms were measured by the Parental Health Questionnaire-9 (Kroenke et al., 2009) and anxiety was measured by the General Anxiety Disorder-7 (Spitzer et al., 2006). Finally, participants completed the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ; Goodman,1997) about one child to measure child psychopathology. Results: Linear regression analyses examined whether the relations between parent psychopathology and child psychopathology are moderated by parenting practices. Family demographic variables that were related to parenting were entered as covariates: parents’ age, sex/gender, income, education, child age, sex/gender, and having more than one child. The SDQ composite score was regressed separately on parental anxiety and depression, negative and positive parenting practices and their respective interaction terms (all mean centered). For negative parenting, there was a significant interaction effect with depression, b=0.09, SE=.02, p <.001, and anxiety b=0.13, SE=.04, p = .001, indicating that the relation between parental depression and anxiety and child psychopathology depends on the degree of negative parenting. For positive parenting, there was a significant interaction effect with anxiety, b=0.21, SE=.06, p < .001, indicating that the relation between parental anxiety and child psychopathology depends on the degree of positive parenting. However, the interaction effect of positive parenting and depression was not significant (p = .11), indicating that the relation between parental depression and child psychopathology is not influenced by the degree of positive parenting. Discussion: These results show that the previously documented link between parental depression and anxiety on children’s mental health outcomes can be moderated by specific parenting practices. These findings may inform interventions by identifying which parenting behaviors might be more harmful or protective for a child's mental health. As children in families affected by mental health challenges are at risk for poorer developmental outcomes, efforts should be made to create resources that address the specific needs of this population to provide additional support. Further research should address how to implement such interventions and resources in community-based settings to increase accessibility beyond the home for both parents and children.

Paper #2
Network Analysis of Parenting, Stigma, and Psychopathology in Transgender Parents
Author information	Role
Yasmin Butt, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign	Presenting author
Violeta J. Rodriguez, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, United States	Non-presenting author
Qimin Liu, Boston University, United States	Non-presenting author
Abstract
Introduction and Hypotheses: Parenting plays a crucial role in shaping both parent and child psychopathology, and their overall socioemotional well-being (Xerxa et al., 2021; Meppelink et al., 2016). Negative parenting is associated with internalizing symptoms such as anxiety and depression, and externalizing behaviors including aggression and hyperactivity in children (Stewart et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2016; Kuroda, 2017; Parent et al., 2016). In contrast, positive parenting is associated with lower levels of these symptoms (Cassibba & Coppola, 2022; Chen et al., 2019). Parenting also impacts parent mental health, with increases in positive parenting linked to reductions in parental psychopathology (Meppelink et al., 2016). Despite the importance of parenting in mental health, transgender and gender-diverse parents remain underrepresented. Transgender parents specifically face distinctive challenges, including discrimination and internalized stigma, which may affect parenting and its outcomes (Carone et al., 2021; De Brito Silva et al., 2023; Alday-Mondaca & Lay-Lisboa, 2021). In this study, we hypothesized that experiences of discrimination and stigma are key paths between parenting and mental health for both parents and children in transgender families. Study Population: The sample consisted of n = 217 transgender parents of children aged 3 to 17 from diverse family structures recruited through online platforms. Participants were ethnoracially and socioeconomically diverse. Methods: A novel network science approach, using a Bayesian Gaussian graphical model, was applied to examine the interrelations between parenting behaviors and parent-child mental health outcomes. Degree centrality was computed to determine which variables were most central to the network and most relevant for intervention. Participants completed a series of validated self-report measures assessing stigma, parent-child mental health symptoms, and parenting emotion regulation. Results: Our analysis revealed significant associations between experiences of discrimination and the use of suppression and rumination in parenting. Internalized transphobia and homophobia were also strongly linked to suppression in emotion regulation (Figure 1). Furthermore, discrimination, internalized transphobia, and internalized homophobia were identified as intermediary paths connecting these emotion regulation strategies and parenting to child psychopathology and parent anxiety and depression. Parent anxiety emerged as the most central variable in the network, showing direct and indirect connections to the other variables (Figure 2). Internalized transphobia and homophobia showed strong centrality emphasizing their importance in parent-child mental health. Conclusion: Our study highlights the distinct challenges transgender and gender-diverse parents and their children face and emphasizes the need for tailored parenting interventions to support these families. This suggest that experiences of discrimination and internalized stigma play a critical role in shaping both parenting and socioemotional wellbeing for parents and children may be significantly shaped by their parent mental health and experience of discrimination. Notably, this strong centrality of internalized transphobia and homophobia highlights the urgent need for interventions that address these specific stressors in parenting to promote healthy developmental trajectories. Future research should focus on longitudinal studies that map the developmental pathways of children in transgender families. Such studies would provide a clearer understanding of how early experiences of parental stigma and discrimination might shape long-term socioemotional outcomes.

Paper #3
Parenting and Parent Sex Influences on the Association of Parent-Child Psychopathology in Asian Americans
Author information	Role
Ashley Benhayoun, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign	Presenting author
Violeta J. Rodriguez, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, United States	Non-presenting author
Abstract
Background: Parent psychopathology can significantly influence child mental health, often manifesting as a negative influence on children's emotional and behavioral outcomes (Zhang et al., 2020). Both positive and negative parenting practices play crucial roles in shaping child well-being and socioemotional development (Smokowski et al., 2015; Zhao et al., 2023). In Asian American families, cultural values can amplify the influence of parental behaviors on and guide parent-child relationships (Tsai-Chae & Nagata, 2008; Dinh & Kalaja, 2024). Additionally, the sex of the parent may further modulate the impact on child mental health (Kim et al., 2023). However, research on the intersections of parent sex, parenting, and psychopathology in Asian Americans remain sparse. Thus, we aimed to explore how parent sex and parenting may influence the association between parent and child psychopathology in Asian American families. Method: Parents of Asian descent (ages 18+) with at least one child 3-17 living with them at least half the time participated. Surveys were deployed managed via QualtricsXM, including measures of parent and child sociodemographics, parenting (Multidimensional Assessment of Parenting Scale; Rodriguez et al., 2024), parent depressive symptoms (PHQ-9; Kroenke et al., 2009), and child psychopathology (Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire; Goodman, 1997). Seven separate double moderation analyses examined the association between parent depressive symptoms and child psychopathology, with parent sex and seven parenting subscales as moderators. Education, income, financial difficulty, and employment were included as covariates. Results: Parent and child demographics can be seen in Table 1. Parents of Asian descent (n = 393; 63.9% female, 36.1% male) were mostly married (77.1%), had at least a bachelor’s degree (66.5%), and were employed (74.6%). On average, children were aged 9.92 (SD = 4.39) years and 53.7% were female, and 45.8% male. Of all seven models, five models that included negative parenting (hostility and physical control) and positive parenting (proactive parenting, positive reinforcement, and warmth) dimensions as moderators revealed significant 3-way interactions (ps <.022; see Figure 1). Specifically, the model examining hostility displayed that the association between parent depressive symptoms and child psychopathology was consistently strong at all levels of hostility, but this effect was greater in magnitude for male parents. Within the positive parenting dimensions, an increase in proactive parenting was associated with a reduction in the association between parent depressive symptoms and child psychopathology. However, this reduction was less prominent for male parent participants, a pattern also observed with warmth. Discussion: Negative parenting (hostility and physical control) intensified the association between parent depression and child psychopathology, with a stronger effect observed for male parents. Conversely, positive parenting (proactive parenting, positive reinforcement, warmth) mitigated this association, though its protective effect was less pronounced for male parents. Results highlight the importance of considering parental sex and parenting in interventions, particularly for Asian American families. The cultural context of Asian American families, which includes unique gender roles and expectations, may further influence these dynamics. Future research should examine how cultural factors influence these interactions and their impact on child development over time.

Paper #4
Psychometric Evaluation of the Multidimensional Assessment of Parenting Scale in Sexual and Gender Minority Parents
Author information	Role
Antonia Yuxin Hua, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign	Presenting author
Violeta J. Rodriguez, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, United States	Non-presenting author
Qimin Liu, Boston University, United States	Non-presenting author
Abstract
Background: Estimates suggest that 2 to 3.7 million U.S. children under the age of 18 are raised by sexual and gender minority (SGM) parents (Gates, 2015). Parenting scales, however, are predominantly based and validated in heteronormative family structures, which may not fully generalize to SGM families (Reczek, 2020). SGM parents face stigmatization and discrimination, leading to significant physical and mental health disparities (Tordoff et al., 2024). These challenges can impact their parenting and the development of their children, yet SGM families remain underrepresented in developmental research. Existing parenting measures have not been validated for SGM contexts, which underscores a critical need for parenting assessments that are psychometrically sound and inclusive of SGM. Objective: Our study focuses on measurement invariance, reliability, and validity of the Multidimensional Assessment of Parenting Scale (MAPS) 2 applied to SGM parents (Parent & Forehand, 2017; Rodriguez et al., 2024). By examining the psychometric properties of the MAPS between SGM and cisgender, heterosexual parents, we address the need for parenting scales that are psychometrically sound, inclusive, reliable, and valid across diverse family structures. Methods: Our study included two ethnoracially diverse national samples of parents (n = 2,299, mean age = 37.05 years, 32.84% SGM) recruited from Qualtrics panels. We explored measurement invariance between SGM and non-SGM parents using multi-group confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), specifically configural, metric, scalar invariance, sequentially constraining parameters and examining changes in fit indices. Next, we conducted a series of multiple regressions to assess the predictive validity of each MAPS subscale for each youth mental health (Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire) by SGM status. Results: Data analyses revealed a modest fit for configural and metric invariance, indicating the MAPS structure and item loadings were consistent across SGM and non-SGM parents. Scalar invariance was only partially supported, suggesting differences in item intercepts between SGM and non-SGM parents. Subscales showed good internal consistency. Following false discovery rate corrections, interactions between SGM status and specific MAPS subscales (supportiveness, physical control) were significantly, but differentially, related to various child psychopathology dimensions. The association between increased supportiveness and decreased emotional symptoms, as well as the negative association between physical control and hyperactivity symptoms were stronger for children with SGM parents compared to children with non-SGM parents. Discussion: Our findings indicate that while the MAPS generally functions similarly across SGM and non-SGM parents, certain nuances are unique to SGM parents, including the effects of supportiveness and physical control on child psychopathology. This does not imply that the entire scale is unreliable for one group over another but highlights the need for cautious interpretation of comparisons. The differential interactions observed in parenting and their potential effects on child psychopathology may suggest that a tailored approach to parenting interventions and supports is needed. These findings emphasize the need for ongoing research to refine parenting measures and interventions to be more inclusive and responsive to diverse families. Recognizing and integrating SGM perspectives in parenting research is crucial to develop inclusive and effective parenting support frameworks, ultimately contributing to healthier family dynamics and child outcomes.

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