About this paper symposium

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Panel information
Panel 9. Family Context & Processes

Paper #1
Differential contributions of prenatal stressors to maternal perceived stress and toddler affect
Author information	Role
Amanda M. Flagg, University at Albany, State University of New York (SUNY)	Presenting author
Lydia F. Bierce, University at Albany, State University of New York (SUNY), United States	Non-presenting author
Betty Lin, University at Albany, State University of New York (SUNY), United States	Non-presenting author
Linda J. Luecken, Arizona State University, United States	Non-presenting author
Abstract
Exposure to maternal stress during critical periods of fetal development confers risk for child affective development (Bush et al., 2017). In turn, individual differences in affective responding that emerge as early as the infant and toddler years are thought to lay the groundwork for a range of adjustment outcomes. For example, high negative and low positive affect have each been linked with later behavioral problems (Olino et al., 2011). Consistent with the Family Stress Model (Conger et al., 2010), prenatal objective stress, including economic hardship, may influence toddler affect through maternal perceived stress. Increased perceived stress may contribute to elevated levels of maternal stress hormones which can then directly affect infant development by way of prenatal programming. Clarifying effects of prenatal stress on infant affective development may be particularly important in Mexican American families, who may face an increased number of stressors, including economic hardship and discrimination (Roubinov et al., 2021). Cultural values may shape one's perception of different stressors. For example, interpersonal stress may be especially salient for Mexican American women who emphasize close family and partner relationships for support (Diaz et al., 2007). Consequently, economic hardship, interpersonal stress and cultural-specific stress may be most impactful among the Mexican American population. However, little is known about which types of prenatal stress may be most important for offspring affective development and the mechanisms that underlie their associations. Drawing longitudinal data from an existing study of 322 low-income Mexican American women and their children (46.3% male), the current study aimed (1) to identify the most salient stressors for mothers, (2) evaluate whether more exposure to objective stressors is associated with greater perceived stress, and (3) test perceived stress as a mechanism by which mother’s prenatal stress experiences shape toddler affect at 12 and 24 months. Maternal prenatal objective stressors and perceived stress were assessed at home visits during pregnancy (26-39 weeks). Toddler affect was collected through observer ratings during mother-toddler interaction tasks and maternal report during lab visits at 12 and 24 months. A series of path models were run to examine associations between prenatal objective stressors (i.e., negative life event stress, economic hardship, cultural-specific stress, daily hassles, family interpersonal stress, and significant other stress) and prenatal perceived stress with child positive and negative affect at 12- and 24-months; separate models were run for each method (i.e. observed or mother-reported) and timepoint (i.e., 12 or 24 month) of child affect assessment (see Figures 1a and 1b). Findings suggest greater daily hassles, economic hardship, and romantic partner stress were each salient contributors to increased maternal perceived stress. In turn, maternal stressors exhibited both direct and indirect effects on toddler affect through maternal perceived stress (see Figures 1a-2b below). However, stress-affect associations varied depending on method (i.e., maternal report or behavioral observation) and timing of assessments (i.e., 12 or 24 month). These findings highlight unique and complex pathways between maternal prenatal stress and toddler affect, which may have further consequences for later child development.

Paper #2
Examining the Family Stress Model with Toddlers in Early Head Start
Author information	Role
Ashley N. Quigley, Oklahoma State University	Presenting author
Lauren G. Bailes, Oklahoma State University, United States	Non-presenting author
Lucia Ciciolla, Oklahoma State University, United States	Non-presenting author
Abstract
Background. Globally, approximately one in three children live in homes that lack necessities due to financial stress (Schmit et al., 2021). The adversities experienced in poverty have been linked to disruptions in child development, including social-emotional development (Archambault et al., 2017). One theory that outlines how economic hardship may impact child development is the Family Stress Model (FSM; Conger et al., 1990; Masarik & Conger, 2017). FSM argues that financial stress impacts child development indirectly through worsening caregiver well-being and impaired parenting practices. However, most literature has examined the FSM with school-aged children and adolescents, with few studies examining this model during infancy (Gard et al., 2020; Xu et al., 2024), despite the known risks of financial stress and poverty for early development (Jensen et al., 2017). Financial stress has been consistently linked with risk for postpartum depressive symptoms (Biaggi et al., 2016). In turn, mothers with depression are more likely to engage in negative parenting practices (Mantis et al., 2019), including being withdrawn and less cognitively stimulating with their infants, which is associated with developmental impairments, including externalizing behaviors (Middeldorp et al., 2016). The current study will examine the FSM in a sample of children ages birth to 3 to identify early life pathways linking financial stress to externalizing symptoms. Methods. Participants include 385 caregiver-child pairs from the Baby FACES study (Vogel & Boller, 2009-2012) who were enrolled in Early HeadStart programs (EHS). The current study used reports of financial stress and maternal depressive symptoms (CESD; Ross et al., 1984) when children were 1 year old, observational data on cognitively stimulating parenting during a semi-structured interaction (Two Bags; Cook & Roggman, 2009) at age 2, and parent report of externalizing behavior problems (Behavior Problem Index; Peterson & Zill, 1986) at age 3. Results. Correlations among study variables are reported in Table 1. Results of a mediation analysis conducted in Mplus 8.0 showed that high family financial risk was associated with higher maternal depressive symptoms, which in turn were associated with less cognitively stimulating parenting behavior and higher child externalizing behavior problems. Unexpectedly, cognitively stimulating parenting was not associated with child externalizing behaviors. There was a significant indirect association between financial risk and child externalizing behavior problems through maternal depressive symptoms (IE: ab = .027; CI = [.002, .302]). See Figure 1. No other indirect associations were found in the model. Discussion. Findings suggest that maternal depression may be one mechanism that links family financial stress with child externalizing behavior problems in toddlerhood. Specifically, when mothers experience high financial stress, they are more likely to report elevated depressive symptoms, which are subsequently associated with child externalizing behavior problems. However, changes in parenting behavior associated with depressive symptoms do not appear to underlie this relationship. The discussion will interpret these findings in the context of infancy and consider alternative mechanisms that may help explain the risk for externalizing behaviors associated with postpartum depression. Implications for screening and prevention/intervention of depressive symptoms and externalizing behaviors for low-income families will also be discussed.

Paper #3
Family Stress Processes in Families with Children born Preterm
Author information	Role
Haley L. Ringenary, University of Missouri-St. Louis, United States	Presenting author
Emily D. Gerstein, University of Missouri-St. Louis, United States	Non-presenting author
Madyson R. Diehl, University of Missouri-St. Louis, United States	Non-presenting author
Rachel E. Lean, Washington University School of Medicine, United States	Non-presenting author
Christopher D. Smyser, Washington University School of Medicine, United States	Non-presenting author
Cynthia E. Rogers, Washington University School of Medicine, United States	Non-presenting author
Abstract
Background. Approximately 10% of infants are born preterm in the United States (Hamilton et al., 2024). Preterm birth can increase parenting stress, alter family relationships, and influence child development (Henderson et al., 2016; Ross et al., 2020). Similar dynamics are seen in the Family Stress Model (FSM; Conger & Conger, 2002), where economic hardships increase parenting stress, leading to interpersonal relationship problems, less supportive parenting practices and consequent child behavior challenges. This study aimed to use the FSM to longitudinally examine how both economic stress and the birth of a child born very preterm (VPT; <30 weeks gestation) impact future family processes and child behavior. Methods. Data is drawn from a sample of children born VPT (n=122) or at term (n=31), and their caregivers, assessed from child ages 2 to 9-10 years. At age 2, economic hardship was determined using neighborhood Area Deprivation Index (ADI) national percentiles, and the Parenting Stress Index assessed parenting stress (Abidin, 1995). At age 5, perceived family dysfunction was assessed using the Family Assessment Device (Epstein et al., 1983). Additionally, observed parenting behaviors were classified into two components: Positive Parenting (sensitivity, positive regard, stimulation of cognition) and Negative Parenting (intrusiveness and negative regard) (Lean et al., 2023). At ages 9-10, caregivers reported child internalizing and externalizing behaviors (CBCL-6/18; Achenbach & Rescorla, 2001). Initial correlations assessed for potential covariates (Table 1). Structural equation analyses utilized full information maximum likelihood estimation, and assessed indirect effects with bootstrapped 95% confidence intervals. Results. Parents experiencing greater neighborhood disadvantage were more likely to report greater parenting stress at the year 2 follow-up, as were parents of children born VPT (Figure 1). Parents reporting greater parenting stress were more likely to demonstrate negative parenting behaviors at age 5, and report higher levels of family dysfunction, but parenting stress was not associated with positive parenting behaviors. Parenting stress mediated the relation between neighborhood disadvantage and negative parenting behaviors, [95%CI (.000, .005)] and family dysfunction [95%CI (.000, .003)], as well as between having a child born VPT and family dysfunction [95%CI (.001, .108)]. Parenting behavior and family dysfunction were not related to child behavioral problems at ages 9-10; however, higher levels of parenting stress at age 2 were directly associated with greater externalizing behavior problems. Conclusions. Consistent with the FSM framework, neighborhood disadvantage was associated with increased parenting stress, which consequently mediated the relation between neighborhood disadvantage and negative parenting behaviors and family dysfunction. Findings also suggest preterm birth, a medical and biological stressor, may increase parenting stress, acting as an additional stressor in the family stress model. However, parenting behavior and family dysfunction were not associated with later child behaviors perhaps due to low base rates of clinically significant behavior problems (approximately 90% of the sample was below at-risk t-scores), although parenting stress from age 2 was directly associated with later externalizing problems. Findings suggest the potential long-term impact of early financial, medical, and parenting stress on parenting and child behavior, and advocate for analyzing additional stressors in the FSM.

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