About this paper symposium

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Panel information
Panel 11. Language, Communication

Paper #1
Longitudinal prediction of late elementary reading comprehension skills among Spanish-English bilingual children
Author information	Role
J. Marc Goodrich, Texas A&M University, United States	Presenting author
Christopher Lonigan, Florida State University, United States	Non-presenting author
Abstract
Emergent literacy skills (e.g., vocabulary, phonological awareness, print knowledge) serve as the foundation of future oral language and reading abilities (Whitehurst & Lonigan, 1998). These skills emerge during early childhood and can be reliably measured during the preschool years. According to the simple view of reading, children’s reading comprehension skills can be characterized as the product of their decoding and language comprehension (i.e., oral language) skills (Hoover & Gough, 1990). Thus, preschool early literacy skills may not only set the developmental stage for acquisition of more complex oral language and decoding skills but may also contribute to children’s later reading comprehension. Although research on monolingual children demonstrates that late elementary reading comprehension outcomes can be explained almost entirely by individual differences in early elementary decoding and oral language skills (e.g., Lonigan et al., 2018), less is known about how early literacy skills contribute longitudinally to reading comprehension outcomes of Spanish-English bilingual children. Some research suggests there are significant cross-language effects on reading comprehension (e.g., Spanish vocabulary uniquely predicting English reading comprehension abilities; Proctor et al., 2006). However, other research suggests that only English oral language and decoding skills directly contribute to later English reading comprehension, with some indirect effects of Spanish emergent literacy skills on reading comprehension via English oral language and decoding (LARRC et al., 2018). Thus, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the contributions of pre-kindergarten emergent literacy skills to kindergarten oral language and decoding skills, and subsequently, reading comprehension outcomes later in elementary school. Data from this project come from the Spanish-speaking subsample of a large preschool literacy curriculum evaluation project. After preschool, children were followed up in kindergarten and late elementary school (either third, fourth, or fifth grade; analytic sample n ≈ 333). In preschool, children completed measures of English and Spanish expressive vocabulary, phonological awareness, and print knowledge. In kindergarten, children completed measures of English and Spanish expressive vocabulary, real and nonsense word reading, and spelling skills. In late elementary school children completed three measures of English reading comprehension and one measure of Spanish reading comprehension. Results of path analysis models that only included within-language paths indicated that kindergarten decoding skills and preschool expressive vocabulary knowledge had significant direct effects on late elementary school reading comprehension outcomes in both English (R2 = 41.7%) and Spanish (R2 = 58.1%). In English, there were significant indirect effects of phonological awareness and print knowledge via kindergarten decoding. In contrast, indirect effects were only significant for Spanish preschool expressive vocabulary knowledge. Addition of cross-language prediction paths to the model explained only an additional 1.8% of variance in English reading comprehension but an additional 10.5% of variance in Spanish reading comprehension. Examination of indirect effects revealed significant effects of early English phonological awareness skills on Spanish reading comprehension outcomes via Spanish kindergarten decoding skills. These results have important implications for early reading assessment of bilingual children enrolled primarily in English instructional programs, and also provide some evidence of cross-language transfer of phonological skills from English to Spanish.

Paper #2
Predicting DLLs’ reading comprehension: The role of socioemotional skills and early literacy
Author information	Role
Maria Belen Buttiler, University of California, Davis, United States	Presenting author
Qing Zhou, University of California, Berkeley, United States	Non-presenting author
Yuuko Uchikoshi, University of California, Davis, United States	Non-presenting author
Abstract
It is well documented that early literacy experiences can significantly shape children’s reading development and later academic success. Research has shown that letter knowledge, oral language skills, phonological awareness, and print awareness can predict reading comprehension among monolingual as well as bilingual children. However, only a few studies have focused on the predictive power of active self-regulation and early literacy skills among dual language learners (DLLs) from immigrant families. Grounded in the Active View of Reading (Duke & Cartwright, 2021), this study examined the longitudinal relationships between DLLs’ socioemotional skills and vocabulary skills in both languages during preschool and their English reading comprehension skills in the early elementary school years. A total of 104 parent-child dyads (18 Mexican American, 86 Chinese American) were recruited from preschools in northern California. At time 1 (2018-2020), parents reported their children’s socioemotional skills using the Child Behavior Checklist (Achenbach & Rescorla, 2001) and the Child Social Competence Questionnaire (adapted from Eisenbergmet al., 1995). Children (ages 3-5) completed the Picture Vocabulary subtest of the Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Oral Language (Schrank, Mather, & McGrew, 2014) in both languages. At time 2 (2022-2023), children (ages 6-8) completed the Gray Oral Reading Test–5 (Wiederholt & Bryant, 2012) in English. Multiple regression models were conducted for both cultural and linguistic groups using RStudio. One model revealed that Mexican American children’s English reading comprehension skills were positively predicted by English vocabulary skills, inhibitory control, and social competence in preschool, controlling for home literacy practices. A second model showed that Chinese American children’s English reading skills were positively predicted by English and Chinese vocabulary skills and social competence, and negatively predicted by shyness in preschool, controlling for home literacy practices. This study underscores the importance of socioemotional skills and early literacy in predicting the reading comprehension of DLLs from two groups of immigrant families living in California. These findings highlight the complex interplay of language and socioemotional development across early childhood. They further suggest that bilingual children’s academic outcomes can be enhanced through interventions that target self-regulation and emotional competencies alongside traditional literacy activities, opening pathways for more holistic educational practices in multilingual contexts. These results carry implications for families and teachers of bilingual children, as they suggest that promoting socioemotional and vocabulary skills in preschool can support DLLs’ academic success

Paper #3
Fifth-grade academic outcomes of English learners in bilingual programs: The mediating effect of third-grade literacy
Author information	Role
Dr. Natalie Lynn Bohlmann, Ph.D., Interactions Matter, LLC, United States	Presenting author
Natalia Palacios, University of Virginia, United States	Non-presenting author
Bethany A. Bell, University of Virginia, United States	Non-presenting author
Min Hyun Oh, University of Virginia, United States	Non-presenting author
Abstract
Education policymakers have increasingly called for focused efforts to serve the rapidly growing student population of English learners (ELs) (Umansky & Porter, 2020). While multiple language programs are available, empirical evidence on their long-term academic outcomes remains mixed, particularly for Spanish-speaking ELs. It is essential to understand how early language programs influence later achievement in core subjects like English Language Arts (ELA) and math to guide policies that promote equitable educational opportunities for this growing population (NCES, 2022a). Our study aimed to examine the relationship between enrollment in different language support programs (Dual Language Immersion [DLI], Structured English Immersion [SEI], and English as a Second Language [ESL]) and fifth-grade academic outcomes for Spanish-speaking ELs in the U.S. Additionally, we explored whether this association might be mediated by children’s basic literacy skills in third grade. We used state level data from Utah and included students who began first grade in 2014-2015, identified as “Hispanic” and “Spanish-speaking,” and were enrolled in one of the three language programs designed for ELs (DLI, SEI, or ESL) for at least two years (first and second grade). These criteria produced a sample of 3,993 students (48% female; 90% from low-income households; 95% with a Spanish-speaking parent). In this sample, 4.8% were enrolled in DLI programs in first grade, 7.0% in SEI programs, and 88.3% in ESL programs. Analytically, we employed propensity score matching (PSM) to generate three matched samples, considering child and family characteristics known to be associated with academic outcomes (DLI/ESL: n = 380; DLI/SEI: n = 380), and SEI/ESL: n = 550). PSM was performed using SAS/STAT 14.2, with a 0.25 calibration requirement and optimal matching, resulting in a 1:1 match between children in each “treatment” and “control” group (DLI vs. ESL, DLI vs. SEI, SEI vs. ESL). Next, we conducted path analysis with each sample to examine the direct effects of language program enrollment starting in first grade on fifth-grade ELA and math achievement (RISE assessment) and assessed the indirect effect of third-grade basic literacy skills (DIBELS). We analyzed the data using robust maximum likelihood (MLR) estimation type COMPLEX in Mplus 8.5, accounting for children nested within schools. Our results supported a mediating effect of third-grade basic literacy skills on fifth-grade ELA (β = .07, p = .03) and math (β = .06, p = .03) outcomes for the DLI versus ESL comparison. Specifically, Spanish-speaking ELs who attended a DLI program in first and second grade demonstrated stronger basic literacy skills in third grade compared to those in ESL programs, and these skills significantly predicted fifth-grade ELA and math achievement. However, we did not find significant direct or indirect effects on fifth-grade outcomes for the DLI vs. SEI or SEI vs. ESL comparisons. Overall, our findings suggest that basic literacy skill development in English is a key mechanism through which early DLI program participation establishes a foundation for later academic success. These results highlight the potential of DLI programs to promote higher academic achievement for Spanish-speaking ELs, particularly through enhanced literacy skills.

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